Text Structure and Purpose practice questions

Text Structure and Purpose questions

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1. 1Text structure and purposeFoundation

   A paragraph first describes a community garden's crowded opening day and then explains how volunteers organized weekly work teams. The second part of the paragraph primarilyA paragraph first describes a community garden's crowded opening day and then explains how volunteers organized weekly work teams. The second part of the paragraph primarily

   • Alists plants that cannot grow outdoors.lists plants that cannot grow outdoors.
   • Bargues that gardens should charge admission.argues that gardens should charge admission.
   • Cintroduces a problem unrelated to the garden.introduces a problem unrelated to the garden.
   • Dexplains how the garden's early interest was sustained.explains how the garden's early interest was sustained.
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   Answer: explains how the garden's early interest was sustained.explains how the garden's early interest was sustained.

   The first part establishes strong initial interest, and the second provides an organizational response that can keep that activity going.The first part establishes strong initial interest, and the second provides an organizational response that can keep that activity going.

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2. 2Text structure and purposeFoundation

   A guide first defines composting and then lists items that should not be placed in a home compost bin. The list mainly helps readersA guide first defines composting and then lists items that should not be placed in a home compost bin. The list mainly helps readers

   • Amemorize the guide's publication date.memorize the guide's publication date.
   • Bcompare two fictional characters.compare two fictional characters.
   • Capply the definition correctly in practice.apply the definition correctly in practice.
   • Dcalculate the cost of a compost bin.calculate the cost of a compost bin.
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   Answer: apply the definition correctly in practice.apply the definition correctly in practice.

   By naming exclusions, the list translates the general definition into decisions a reader can make when composting at home.By naming exclusions, the list translates the general definition into decisions a reader can make when composting at home.

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3. 3Text structure and purposeFoundation

   An article opens by listing the tools a bookbinder keeps on her bench, then explains how each one is used during a single repair. The opening list mainly serves toAn article opens by listing the tools a bookbinder keeps on her bench, then explains how each one is used during a single repair. The opening list mainly serves to

   • Acompare two competing methods of repair.compare two competing methods of repair.
   • Bsummarize the article's conclusion.summarize the article's conclusion.
   • Cargue that bookbinding is difficult to learn.argue that bookbinding is difficult to learn.
   • Dintroduce the objects the rest of the article will explain.introduce the objects the rest of the article will explain.
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   Answer: introduce the objects the rest of the article will explain.introduce the objects the rest of the article will explain.

   The list names exactly what the following section takes up one at a time, so it functions as a setup. No comparison is drawn and no conclusion is stated.The list names exactly what the following section takes up one at a time, so it functions as a setup. No comparison is drawn and no conclusion is stated.

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4. 4Text structure and purposeStandard

   An article opens with a description of a scientist repairing old instruments and then shifts to the scientist's discoveries. The opening description most likely serves toAn article opens with a description of a scientist repairing old instruments and then shifts to the scientist's discoveries. The opening description most likely serves to

   • Aprovide a complete list of the scientist's discoveries.provide a complete list of the scientist's discoveries.
   • Bprove that old instruments are more accurate than new ones.prove that old instruments are more accurate than new ones.
   • Cargue that discoveries happen without effort.argue that discoveries happen without effort.
   • Dshow a habit that helped prepare the scientist for later work.show a habit that helped prepare the scientist for later work.
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   Answer: show a habit that helped prepare the scientist for later work.show a habit that helped prepare the scientist for later work.

   The shift links early hands-on experience with subsequent discoveries. The opening is illustrative background, not proof about instrument age or a complete catalog.The shift links early hands-on experience with subsequent discoveries. The opening is illustrative background, not proof about instrument age or a complete catalog.

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5. 5Text structure and purposeStandard

   A writer presents two possible explanations for a decline in pond water levels and then describes an experiment designed to distinguish between them. The experiment is included mainly toA writer presents two possible explanations for a decline in pond water levels and then describes an experiment designed to distinguish between them. The experiment is included mainly to

   • Aprove that both explanations are false.prove that both explanations are false.
   • Bintroduce a new, unrelated topic.introduce a new, unrelated topic.
   • Creplace evidence with opinion.replace evidence with opinion.
   • Dshow how the competing explanations can be tested.show how the competing explanations can be tested.
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   Answer: show how the competing explanations can be tested.show how the competing explanations can be tested.

   The experiment follows the competing explanations specifically to determine which one better accounts for the observed decline.The experiment follows the competing explanations specifically to determine which one better accounts for the observed decline.

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6. 6Text structure and purposeStandard

   A passage describes a grower's failed attempt to raise a crop in poor soil, then the adjustments made over the next two seasons, then a successful harvest in the third. The passage is organized asA passage describes a grower's failed attempt to raise a crop in poor soil, then the adjustments made over the next two seasons, then a successful harvest in the third. The passage is organized as

   • Aa claim followed by two counterarguments.a claim followed by two counterarguments.
   • Ba problem, a sequence of responses, and an outcome.a problem, a sequence of responses, and an outcome.
   • Ca comparison of two growers' methods.a comparison of two growers' methods.
   • Da definition followed by a list of examples.a definition followed by a list of examples.
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   Answer: a problem, a sequence of responses, and an outcome.a problem, a sequence of responses, and an outcome.

   The three parts map directly onto a difficulty, the steps taken in response, and the result. No claim is argued against, nothing is defined, and only one grower appears.The three parts map directly onto a difficulty, the steps taken in response, and the result. No claim is argued against, nothing is defined, and only one grower appears.

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7. 7Text structure and purposeStandard

   In a paragraph about a river cleanup, the writer gives one sentence to the volunteers' early doubts and five to what they accomplished. This proportion mainly serves toIn a paragraph about a river cleanup, the writer gives one sentence to the volunteers' early doubts and five to what they accomplished. This proportion mainly serves to

   • Aargue that the cleanup should have started earlier.argue that the cleanup should have started earlier.
   • Bcompare the volunteers' work with a similar project.compare the volunteers' work with a similar project.
   • Cacknowledge an initial concern while keeping the focus on results.acknowledge an initial concern while keeping the focus on results.
   • Dsuggest that the volunteers' doubts were never resolved.suggest that the volunteers' doubts were never resolved.
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   Answer: acknowledge an initial concern while keeping the focus on results.acknowledge an initial concern while keeping the focus on results.

   One sentence is enough to register the doubt; the five that follow put the weight on what was achieved. Nothing in the paragraph leaves the doubts open or draws a comparison.One sentence is enough to register the doubt; the five that follow put the weight on what was achieved. Nothing in the paragraph leaves the doubts open or draws a comparison.

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8. 8Text structure and purposeStandard

   An essay opens by asking why a small town has kept its century-old clock running, then describes the volunteers who wind it each week, and closes by returning to the question. The closing mainly serves toAn essay opens by asking why a small town has kept its century-old clock running, then describes the volunteers who wind it each week, and closes by returning to the question. The closing mainly serves to

   • Alist the repairs the clock will require next.list the repairs the clock will require next.
   • Banswer the opening question using what the middle described.answer the opening question using what the middle described.
   • Cintroduce a new question the essay leaves unresolved.introduce a new question the essay leaves unresolved.
   • Dcast doubt on the accuracy of the volunteers' account.cast doubt on the accuracy of the volunteers' account.
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   Answer: answer the opening question using what the middle described.answer the opening question using what the middle described.

   Returning to the opening question after presenting the volunteers' work is what makes the middle section the answer. No new question, doubt, or list is introduced.Returning to the opening question after presenting the volunteers' work is what makes the middle section the answer. No new question, doubt, or list is introduced.

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9. 9Text structure and purposeStandard

   A profile of a violin maker begins with three sentences on the noise of the workshop, then turns to the silence she requires when fitting a soundpost. The opening mainly serves toA profile of a violin maker begins with three sentences on the noise of the workshop, then turns to the silence she requires when fitting a soundpost. The opening mainly serves to

   • Aargue that violin making is a noisy trade.argue that violin making is a noisy trade.
   • Blist the tools used in the workshop.list the tools used in the workshop.
   • Cexplain how a soundpost is fitted.explain how a soundpost is fitted.
   • Destablish a contrast that makes the later silence noticeable.establish a contrast that makes the later silence noticeable.
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   Answer: establish a contrast that makes the later silence noticeable.establish a contrast that makes the later silence noticeable.

   The opening's function is to set up the shift that follows; noise is meaningful here because silence comes after it. Summarizing the noise or the fitting describes content rather than function.The opening's function is to set up the shift that follows; noise is meaningful here because silence comes after it. Summarizing the noise or the fitting describes content rather than function.

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10. 10Text structure and purposeStandard

    An article on flood defenses devotes its final paragraph to a village that declined the proposed barrier and explains why. That paragraph mainly serves toAn article on flood defenses devotes its final paragraph to a village that declined the proposed barrier and explains why. That paragraph mainly serves to

    • Aintroduce a new topic the article does not pursue.introduce a new topic the article does not pursue.
    • Bqualify the article's case by presenting a reasoned exception.qualify the article's case by presenting a reasoned exception.
    • Csummarize the technical content of the earlier paragraphs.summarize the technical content of the earlier paragraphs.
    • Dprove that flood barriers do not work.prove that flood barriers do not work.
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    Answer: qualify the article's case by presenting a reasoned exception.qualify the article's case by presenting a reasoned exception.

    An exception given with its reasons narrows a general case without overturning it. Nothing in the description suggests a proof, a summary, or an unrelated new topic.An exception given with its reasons narrows a general case without overturning it. Nothing in the description suggests a proof, a summary, or an unrelated new topic.

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11. 11Text structure and purposeStandard

    An article about a ferry service opens with the timetable as it stood in 1975, then gives the current one, then explains what changed between them. This structure mainly serves toAn article about a ferry service opens with the timetable as it stood in 1975, then gives the current one, then explains what changed between them. This structure mainly serves to

    • Alist every change the service has made.list every change the service has made.
    • Bargue that the older timetable was better.argue that the older timetable was better.
    • Cestablish a contrast that the rest of the article accounts for.establish a contrast that the rest of the article accounts for.
    • Ddefine the terms used later in the article.define the terms used later in the article.
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    Answer: establish a contrast that the rest of the article accounts for.establish a contrast that the rest of the article accounts for.

    Two states followed by an explanation is a contrast set up for the sake of the account that follows. No preference is expressed and nothing is defined.Two states followed by an explanation is a contrast set up for the sake of the account that follows. No preference is expressed and nothing is defined.

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12. 12Text structure and purposeStandard

    A passage about a flood defense spends its first half on how the barrier was designed and its second half on a storm during which it was tested. The second half mainly serves toA passage about a flood defense spends its first half on how the barrier was designed and its second half on a storm during which it was tested. The second half mainly serves to

    • Ashow the design meeting the conditions it was built for.show the design meeting the conditions it was built for.
    • Bcriticise the assumptions behind the design.criticise the assumptions behind the design.
    • Ccompare the barrier with defenses elsewhere.compare the barrier with defenses elsewhere.
    • Ddescribe an unrelated weather event.describe an unrelated weather event.
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    Answer: show the design meeting the conditions it was built for.show the design meeting the conditions it was built for.

    A design followed by its test is a demonstration. Nothing in the description suggests criticism, and the storm is presented as the test rather than as a separate event.A design followed by its test is a demonstration. Nothing in the description suggests criticism, and the storm is presented as the test rather than as a separate event.

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13. 13Text structure and purposeStandard

    An essay about a disused railway ends by returning to a detail from its opening paragraph, now explained. This ending mainly serves toAn essay about a disused railway ends by returning to a detail from its opening paragraph, now explained. This ending mainly serves to

    • Aquestion the reliability of the opening description.question the reliability of the opening description.
    • Bsummarize every point the essay made.summarize every point the essay made.
    • Cclose the essay by resolving something it opened with.close the essay by resolving something it opened with.
    • Dintroduce a new line of argument.introduce a new line of argument.
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    Answer: close the essay by resolving something it opened with.close the essay by resolving something it opened with.

    Returning to an opening detail with an explanation attached is closure. It is neither a summary of everything nor a new argument.Returning to an opening detail with an explanation attached is closure. It is neither a summary of everything nor a new argument.

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14. 14Text structure and purposeStandard

    An article about a lighthouse keeper opens with the sound of the foghorn, returns to it midway, and ends with the day it was switched off. The repeated detail mainly serves toAn article about a lighthouse keeper opens with the sound of the foghorn, returns to it midway, and ends with the day it was switched off. The repeated detail mainly serves to

    • Amark the passage of time across the article.mark the passage of time across the article.
    • Bexplain how a foghorn works.explain how a foghorn works.
    • Cargue that foghorns should be preserved.argue that foghorns should be preserved.
    • Dcompare two lighthouses.compare two lighthouses.
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    Answer: mark the passage of time across the article.mark the passage of time across the article.

    A detail that recurs at three points and ends by ceasing is functioning as a marker of chronology. No argument is made and nothing is explained mechanically.A detail that recurs at three points and ends by ceasing is functioning as a marker of chronology. No argument is made and nothing is explained mechanically.

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15. 15Text structure and purposeStandard

    A passage about a river restoration devotes its opening to the river as it was in 1990, and everything after to the work done since. This structure mainly serves toA passage about a river restoration devotes its opening to the river as it was in 1990, and everything after to the work done since. This structure mainly serves to

    • Agive the later work a baseline to be measured against.give the later work a baseline to be measured against.
    • Blist the species that returned.list the species that returned.
    • Cdescribe the engineering techniques used.describe the engineering techniques used.
    • Dargue that the river should be left alone.argue that the river should be left alone.
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    Answer: give the later work a baseline to be measured against.give the later work a baseline to be measured against.

    A prior state placed before an account of change is a baseline. The passage is described as covering work, not techniques or species lists, and makes no argument against intervention.A prior state placed before an account of change is a baseline. The passage is described as covering work, not techniques or species lists, and makes no argument against intervention.

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16. 16Text structure and purposeStandard

    An article about a clock tower opens by describing the view from its top, then spends the rest on the mechanism inside. The opening mainly serves toAn article about a clock tower opens by describing the view from its top, then spends the rest on the mechanism inside. The opening mainly serves to

    • Acompare the tower with others in the region.compare the tower with others in the region.
    • Bgive the reader a reason to care about what follows.give the reader a reason to care about what follows.
    • Cargue that the tower should be opened to visitors.argue that the tower should be opened to visitors.
    • Dexplain how the mechanism keeps time.explain how the mechanism keeps time.
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    Answer: give the reader a reason to care about what follows.give the reader a reason to care about what follows.

    An appealing image placed before technical material is doing motivational work. No argument is advanced and no comparison drawn, and the explanation comes later rather than in the opening.An appealing image placed before technical material is doing motivational work. No argument is advanced and no comparison drawn, and the explanation comes later rather than in the opening.

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17. 17Text structure and purposeStandard

    A chapter on a printing press gives half its length to a single afternoon in 1455 and the rest to the following fifty years. This proportion mainly serves toA chapter on a printing press gives half its length to a single afternoon in 1455 and the rest to the following fifty years. This proportion mainly serves to

    • Acompare two rival printers.compare two rival printers.
    • Blist the books printed in that period.list the books printed in that period.
    • Cargue that the fifty years were uneventful.argue that the fifty years were uneventful.
    • Dmark that afternoon as the turning point the rest follows from.mark that afternoon as the turning point the rest follows from.
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    Answer: mark that afternoon as the turning point the rest follows from.mark that afternoon as the turning point the rest follows from.

    Disproportionate space given to a short moment signals its importance. Covering fifty years in the remainder is compression, not a claim that nothing happened.Disproportionate space given to a short moment signals its importance. Covering fifty years in the remainder is compression, not a claim that nothing happened.

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18. 18Text structure and purposeStandard

    The first three paragraphs of a passage describe how a drug performed in trials. The fourth opens: "None of this tells us how it will behave in the people most likely to be prescribed it, who are older and take four other medicines."What is the function of that opening sentence?The first three paragraphs of a passage describe how a drug performed in trials. The fourth opens: "None of this tells us how it will behave in the people most likely to be prescribed it, who are older and take four other medicines." What is the function of that opening sentence?

    • AIt summarizes the trial results just described.It summarizes the trial results just described.
    • BIt concedes that the trials were badly designed.It concedes that the trials were badly designed.
    • CIt marks a limit on what the preceding evidence can establish.It marks a limit on what the preceding evidence can establish.
    • DIt introduces a rival drug for comparison.It introduces a rival drug for comparison.
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    Answer: It marks a limit on what the preceding evidence can establish.It marks a limit on what the preceding evidence can establish.

    "None of this tells us" points backward at the evidence and names something it cannot reach. That is a limit on scope, not a summary, and not a complaint about the design — a well-run trial in younger patients still says nothing about older ones."None of this tells us" points backward at the evidence and names something it cannot reach. That is a limit on scope, not a summary, and not a complaint about the design — a well-run trial in younger patients still says nothing about older ones.

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19. 19Text structure and purposeStandard

    A chapter on urban rivers opens with three pages of statistics on water quality, then gives a single paragraph to a man who has fished the same stretch for fifty years and says the fish came back in 2011.What does the paragraph about the fisherman most likely do in the chapter?A chapter on urban rivers opens with three pages of statistics on water quality, then gives a single paragraph to a man who has fished the same stretch for fifty years and says the fish came back in 2011. What does the paragraph about the fisherman most likely do in the chapter?

    • AIt replaces the statistics with a more reliable kind of measurement.It replaces the statistics with a more reliable kind of measurement.
    • BIt concedes that the statistics were wrong.It concedes that the statistics were wrong.
    • CIt gives the measured change a form the reader can picture.It gives the measured change a form the reader can picture.
    • DIt introduces the chapter's main argument for the first time.It introduces the chapter's main argument for the first time.
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    Answer: It gives the measured change a form the reader can picture.It gives the measured change a form the reader can picture.

    One person's fifty years on one stretch is not a better measurement than three pages of data, and the chapter does not present it as one. What it adds is a scale a reader can hold, which is a different job from measuring.One person's fifty years on one stretch is not a better measurement than three pages of data, and the chapter does not present it as one. What it adds is a scale a reader can hold, which is a different job from measuring.

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20. 20Text structure and purposeStandard

    An article on antibiotic resistance opens with one patient whose infection failed to respond to six drugs in turn, then moves to national prescribing figures.What does the opening story most likely do?An article on antibiotic resistance opens with one patient whose infection failed to respond to six drugs in turn, then moves to national prescribing figures. What does the opening story most likely do?

    • AIt proves that prescribing habits cause resistance.It proves that prescribing habits cause resistance.
    • BIt gives a scale the figures cannot convey on their own.It gives a scale the figures cannot convey on their own.
    • CIt concedes that the national figures are unreliable.It concedes that the national figures are unreliable.
    • DIt introduces a disagreement between researchers.It introduces a disagreement between researchers.
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    Answer: It gives a scale the figures cannot convey on their own.It gives a scale the figures cannot convey on their own.

    One case cannot prove a national cause, and the article does not offer it as proof — it offers it as something a reader can hold before the numbers arrive. The figures are not questioned and no disagreement is raised.One case cannot prove a national cause, and the article does not offer it as proof — it offers it as something a reader can hold before the numbers arrive. The figures are not questioned and no disagreement is raised.

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21. 21Text structure and purposeStandard

    A profile of a composer gives its final paragraph to a piece she abandoned after four bars, quoting those four bars in full.What does the final paragraph most likely do?A profile of a composer gives its final paragraph to a piece she abandoned after four bars, quoting those four bars in full. What does the final paragraph most likely do?

    • AIt corrects an error made earlier in the profile.It corrects an error made earlier in the profile.
    • BIt ranks the abandoned piece above her finished work.It ranks the abandoned piece above her finished work.
    • CIt uses an unfinished fragment to show what the finished work was reaching for.It uses an unfinished fragment to show what the finished work was reaching for.
    • DIt explains why she stopped composing altogether.It explains why she stopped composing altogether.
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    Answer: It uses an unfinished fragment to show what the finished work was reaching for.It uses an unfinished fragment to show what the finished work was reaching for.

    A fragment placed last, and quoted rather than described, is being used to say something about everything before it. Four abandoned bars are not offered as her best work, and abandoning one piece is not giving up.A fragment placed last, and quoted rather than described, is being used to say something about everything before it. Four abandoned bars are not offered as her best work, and abandoning one piece is not giving up.

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22. 22Text structure and purposeStandard

    A history of the postal service gives a paragraph to the weight of a Victorian letter carrier's bag and the distance walked in a shift, then returns to legislation.What does that paragraph most likely do?A history of the postal service gives a paragraph to the weight of a Victorian letter carrier's bag and the distance walked in a shift, then returns to legislation. What does that paragraph most likely do?

    • AIt argues that carriers were underpaid.It argues that carriers were underpaid.
    • BIt grounds an administrative history in the physical work being administered.It grounds an administrative history in the physical work being administered.
    • CIt corrects a figure given earlier in the chapter.It corrects a figure given earlier in the chapter.
    • DIt signals that the legislation was ineffective.It signals that the legislation was ineffective.
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    Answer: It grounds an administrative history in the physical work being administered.It grounds an administrative history in the physical work being administered.

    A weight and a distance are not an argument about pay or a verdict on a law; they are what the legislation was about, given in a form a reader can feel. The paragraph is placed between two legislative passages for exactly that reason.A weight and a distance are not an argument about pay or a verdict on a law; they are what the legislation was about, given in a form a reader can feel. The paragraph is placed between two legislative passages for exactly that reason.

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23. 23Text structure and purposeStandard

    A report on flood defenses gives each chapter to one town that adopted the scheme, and gives its final chapter to a town that declined it.What does the final chapter most likely do?A report on flood defenses gives each chapter to one town that adopted the scheme, and gives its final chapter to a town that declined it. What does the final chapter most likely do?

    • AIt concludes that the scheme was unnecessary.It concludes that the scheme was unnecessary.
    • BIt lists the towns that took part.It lists the towns that took part.
    • CIt apologises for the report being incomplete.It apologises for the report being incomplete.
    • DIt supplies the comparison the other chapters could not provide on their own.It supplies the comparison the other chapters could not provide on their own.
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    Answer: It supplies the comparison the other chapters could not provide on their own.It supplies the comparison the other chapters could not provide on their own.

    Chapters about towns that all did the same thing cannot show what difference the thing made. The town that declined is the only case that can, which is why it is given a chapter rather than a footnote.Chapters about towns that all did the same thing cannot show what difference the thing made. The town that declined is the only case that can, which is why it is given a chapter rather than a footnote.

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24. 24Text structure and purposeStandard

    A chapter on the invention of the safety lamp devotes its central pages to two men who each claimed it, and returns repeatedly to the fact that neither could have read the other's notebooks.What does that repeated detail do?A chapter on the invention of the safety lamp devotes its central pages to two men who each claimed it, and returns repeatedly to the fact that neither could have read the other's notebooks. What does that repeated detail do?

    • AIt establishes that one of the two men was dishonest.It establishes that one of the two men was dishonest.
    • BIt proves that the lamp was invented earlier than either claimed.It proves that the lamp was invented earlier than either claimed.
    • CIt keeps open the possibility that both invented it independently.It keeps open the possibility that both invented it independently.
    • DIt shows that notebooks are unreliable historical evidence.It shows that notebooks are unreliable historical evidence.
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    Answer: It keeps open the possibility that both invented it independently.It keeps open the possibility that both invented it independently.

    If neither could have seen the other's work, neither needs to have copied, and a priority dispute stops requiring a villain. The detail is returned to because it is what holds that possibility open.If neither could have seen the other's work, neither needs to have copied, and a priority dispute stops requiring a villain. The detail is returned to because it is what holds that possibility open.

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25. 25Text structure and purposeStandard

    A review of a long biography spends its first three paragraphs on what the book does well and its last sentence on a factual error in the index.What does the proportion between them most likely signal?A review of a long biography spends its first three paragraphs on what the book does well and its last sentence on a factual error in the index. What does the proportion between them most likely signal?

    • AThat the error is real but does not affect the reviewer's overall judgment.That the error is real but does not affect the reviewer's overall judgment.
    • BThat the error is the review's main charge.That the error is the review's main charge.
    • CThat the reviewer had nothing substantial to praise.That the reviewer had nothing substantial to praise.
    • DThat the biography should not have been published.That the biography should not have been published.
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    Answer: That the error is real but does not affect the reviewer's overall judgment.That the error is real but does not affect the reviewer's overall judgment.

    A fault given one sentence after three paragraphs of praise is being recorded rather than pressed. Proportion is how a review says how much weight it wants a criticism to carry.A fault given one sentence after three paragraphs of praise is being recorded rather than pressed. Proportion is how a review says how much weight it wants a criticism to carry.

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26. 26Text structure and purposeStandard

    A study of a shipwreck spends its opening chapter on the cargo manifest — barrels, bolts of cloth, quantities and owners — before any account of the sinking.What does that opening chapter most likely do?A study of a shipwreck spends its opening chapter on the cargo manifest — barrels, bolts of cloth, quantities and owners — before any account of the sinking. What does that opening chapter most likely do?

    • AIt argues that the cargo caused the sinking.It argues that the cargo caused the sinking.
    • BIt corrects errors in the manifest.It corrects errors in the manifest.
    • CIt establishes what was at stake before describing what was lost.It establishes what was at stake before describing what was lost.
    • DIt demonstrates that the ship was overloaded.It demonstrates that the ship was overloaded.
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    Answer: It establishes what was at stake before describing what was lost.It establishes what was at stake before describing what was lost.

    A list of goods and owners placed before the sinking gives the loss a size and a set of people. Any claim about cause or overloading would need the manifest to be argued from, and the chapter only sets it out.A list of goods and owners placed before the sinking gives the loss a size and a set of people. Any claim about cause or overloading would need the manifest to be argued from, and the chapter only sets it out.

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27. 27Text structure and purposeStandard

    An article on a new bridge quotes the engineer, the city treasurer and a resident whose view it blocks, and gives each the same amount of space.What does that equal allocation most likely signal?An article on a new bridge quotes the engineer, the city treasurer and a resident whose view it blocks, and gives each the same amount of space. What does that equal allocation most likely signal?

    • AThat the article is presenting a decision as a balance of competing claims.That the article is presenting a decision as a balance of competing claims.
    • BThat the article regards the three positions as equally well supported.That the article regards the three positions as equally well supported.
    • CThat the resident's objection is the article's real subject.That the resident's objection is the article's real subject.
    • DThat the article has no view of its own on any question.That the article has no view of its own on any question.
    Show the answer and explanationHide the explanation

    Answer: That the article is presenting a decision as a balance of competing claims.That the article is presenting a decision as a balance of competing claims.

    Equal space marks the three as parties with standing rather than as claims of equal evidential weight — those are different things. Allocating space is how an article says what kind of question it takes this to be.Equal space marks the three as parties with standing rather than as claims of equal evidential weight — those are different things. Allocating space is how an article says what kind of question it takes this to be.

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28. 28Text structure and purposeStandard

    A study of a famine opens with the price of grain, moves to the weather, then to the roads, and only in its final chapter to the government's decisions.What does that ordering most likely accomplish?A study of a famine opens with the price of grain, moves to the weather, then to the roads, and only in its final chapter to the government's decisions. What does that ordering most likely accomplish?

    • AIt exonerates the government by leaving it until last.It exonerates the government by leaving it until last.
    • BIt signals that the roads were the principal cause.It signals that the roads were the principal cause.
    • CIt establishes the conditions before assigning any responsibility.It establishes the conditions before assigning any responsibility.
    • DIt follows the order in which the events occurred.It follows the order in which the events occurred.
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    Answer: It establishes the conditions before assigning any responsibility.It establishes the conditions before assigning any responsibility.

    Prices, weather and roads are the situation the decisions were taken in, and a reader who meets them first can judge the decisions against what was known. Leaving something until last is not the same as excusing it, and the order is analytical rather than chronological.Prices, weather and roads are the situation the decisions were taken in, and a reader who meets them first can judge the decisions against what was known. Leaving something until last is not the same as excusing it, and the order is analytical rather than chronological.

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29. 29Text structure and purposeStandard

    A profile of an engineer devotes one paragraph to a bridge she designed that was never built, quoting the calculations in full.What does that paragraph most likely accomplish?A profile of an engineer devotes one paragraph to a bridge she designed that was never built, quoting the calculations in full. What does that paragraph most likely accomplish?

    • AIt shows the standard of her work independently of what was constructed.It shows the standard of her work independently of what was constructed.
    • BIt argues the bridge should have been built.It argues the bridge should have been built.
    • CIt explains why her career ended.It explains why her career ended.
    • DIt corrects an error in the published record.It corrects an error in the published record.
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    Answer: It shows the standard of her work independently of what was constructed.It shows the standard of her work independently of what was constructed.

    An unbuilt design lets a profile assess the engineering without the accidents of funding and politics that decide what gets built. Quoting calculations is evidence of quality rather than an argument about a decision.An unbuilt design lets a profile assess the engineering without the accidents of funding and politics that decide what gets built. Quoting calculations is evidence of quality rather than an argument about a decision.

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30. 30Text structure and purposeChallenge

    A chapter about a translator opens with a single sentence she spent four months on, then widens to describe her whole approach to the book. This movement from one sentence to the whole book mainly serves toA chapter about a translator opens with a single sentence she spent four months on, then widens to describe her whole approach to the book. This movement from one sentence to the whole book mainly serves to

    • Acompare the translator's work with another translator's.compare the translator's work with another translator's.
    • Buse a concrete case to introduce a general method.use a concrete case to introduce a general method.
    • Cargue that translation is slower than most readers assume.argue that translation is slower than most readers assume.
    • Dlist the stages a translation passes through.list the stages a translation passes through.
    Show the answer and explanationHide the explanation

    Answer: use a concrete case to introduce a general method.use a concrete case to introduce a general method.

    Beginning with a specific instance and widening to the approach is the classic particular-to-general move. No comparison is drawn and no list is given.Beginning with a specific instance and widening to the approach is the classic particular-to-general move. No comparison is drawn and no list is given.

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31. 31Text structure and purposeChallenge

    An essay on urban trees gives four paragraphs to their benefits and one to the cost of maintaining them, then closes by arguing for more planting. The single paragraph on cost mainly serves toAn essay on urban trees gives four paragraphs to their benefits and one to the cost of maintaining them, then closes by arguing for more planting. The single paragraph on cost mainly serves to

    • Aintroduce a topic the essay does not pursue.introduce a topic the essay does not pursue.
    • Bmake the closing argument harder to dismiss.make the closing argument harder to dismiss.
    • Cconcede that the argument fails.concede that the argument fails.
    • Dsummarize the four preceding paragraphs.summarize the four preceding paragraphs.
    Show the answer and explanationHide the explanation

    Answer: make the closing argument harder to dismiss.make the closing argument harder to dismiss.

    An argument that names its own cost and proceeds anyway is more credible than one that ignores it. The paragraph is a concession in service of the conclusion, not a retreat from it.An argument that names its own cost and proceeds anyway is more credible than one that ignores it. The paragraph is a concession in service of the conclusion, not a retreat from it.

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32. 32Text structure and purposeChallenge

    An essay arguing for wider sidewalks devotes a paragraph to a street where widening them removed parking and local shops objected. That paragraph mainly serves toAn essay arguing for wider sidewalks devotes a paragraph to a street where widening them removed parking and local shops objected. That paragraph mainly serves to

    • Asummarize the essay's earlier points.summarize the essay's earlier points.
    • Babandon the argument in the face of opposition.abandon the argument in the face of opposition.
    • Cintroduce a topic the essay does not return to.introduce a topic the essay does not return to.
    • Dstrengthen the argument by showing it has met its hardest case.strengthen the argument by showing it has met its hardest case.
    Show the answer and explanationHide the explanation

    Answer: strengthen the argument by showing it has met its hardest case.strengthen the argument by showing it has met its hardest case.

    An argument that names the strongest objection and continues is more credible than one that ignores it. Nothing in the description suggests the essay changes position.An argument that names the strongest objection and continues is more credible than one that ignores it. Nothing in the description suggests the essay changes position.

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33. 33Text structure and purposeChallenge

    An essay on urban trees spends two pages on the cooling effect of canopy cover, then turns to a single street where residents petitioned to have the lime trees removed because of the sap falling on their cars.What does the account of that street do in the essay?An essay on urban trees spends two pages on the cooling effect of canopy cover, then turns to a single street where residents petitioned to have the lime trees removed because of the sap falling on their cars. What does the account of that street do in the essay?

    • AIt supplies the measurement the earlier pages lacked.It supplies the measurement the earlier pages lacked.
    • BIt sets a general benefit against a local cost that the benefit does not settle.It sets a general benefit against a local cost that the benefit does not settle.
    • CIt shows that the cooling effect had been overstated.It shows that the cooling effect had been overstated.
    • DIt closes the essay by resolving the disagreement.It closes the essay by resolving the disagreement.
    Show the answer and explanationHide the explanation

    Answer: It sets a general benefit against a local cost that the benefit does not settle.It sets a general benefit against a local cost that the benefit does not settle.

    Sap on a car is not an argument against cooling; it is a cost that falls on particular people while the benefit is spread. The example neither measures the cooling nor disproves it, and it opens a tension rather than settling one.Sap on a car is not an argument against cooling; it is a cost that falls on particular people while the benefit is spread. The example neither measures the cooling nor disproves it, and it opens a tension rather than settling one.

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34. 34Text structure and purposeChallenge

    An essay on translation ends: "Every version I have given here is wrong in a different way, which is the only honest thing I can say about the poem and the reason I have given six."What does the final sentence do?An essay on translation ends: "Every version I have given here is wrong in a different way, which is the only honest thing I can say about the poem and the reason I have given six." What does the final sentence do?

    • AIt apologises for the essay's failure to reach a conclusion.It apologises for the essay's failure to reach a conclusion.
    • BIt withdraws the six translations offered earlier.It withdraws the six translations offered earlier.
    • CIt recasts the essay's method as its argument.It recasts the essay's method as its argument.
    • DIt identifies which of the six versions is best.It identifies which of the six versions is best.
    Show the answer and explanationHide the explanation

    Answer: It recasts the essay's method as its argument.It recasts the essay's method as its argument.

    The sentence says the six versions exist because no single one can be right, so the multiplicity is the point being made rather than a failure to make one. Nothing is withdrawn and no version is preferred.The sentence says the six versions exist because no single one can be right, so the multiplicity is the point being made rather than a failure to make one. Nothing is withdrawn and no version is preferred.

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35. 35Text structure and purposeChallenge

    A chapter on a famine ends by listing, over two pages, the price of a sack of rice in one market on each day of the crisis.What is the most likely purpose of that list?A chapter on a famine ends by listing, over two pages, the price of a sack of rice in one market on each day of the crisis. What is the most likely purpose of that list?

    • ATo display the author's access to unusual archives.To display the author's access to unusual archives.
    • BTo supply data that other researchers can reuse.To supply data that other researchers can reuse.
    • CTo argue that traders caused the famine.To argue that traders caused the famine.
    • DTo make a change described in general terms unavoidably concrete.To make a change described in general terms unavoidably concrete.
    Show the answer and explanationHide the explanation

    Answer: To make a change described in general terms unavoidably concrete.To make a change described in general terms unavoidably concrete.

    A daily series read across two pages does something a summary cannot: it makes the reader travel the rise at the speed the market did. Reuse and archive access are by-products, and no cause is being argued.A daily series read across two pages does something a summary cannot: it makes the reader travel the rise at the speed the market did. Reuse and archive access are by-products, and no cause is being argued.

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36. 36Text structure and purposeChallenge

    A biography gives its opening chapter not to its subject but to the town he left at nineteen and never returned to.What is the most likely purpose of that chapter?A biography gives its opening chapter not to its subject but to the town he left at nineteen and never returned to. What is the most likely purpose of that chapter?

    • ATo establish what the rest of the life was measured against.To establish what the rest of the life was measured against.
    • BTo argue that the subject should have stayed.To argue that the subject should have stayed.
    • CTo fill out a biography with insufficient material.To fill out a biography with insufficient material.
    • DTo describe the town for its own sake.To describe the town for its own sake.
    Show the answer and explanationHide the explanation

    Answer: To establish what the rest of the life was measured against.To establish what the rest of the life was measured against.

    A place left at nineteen and never revisited earns an opening chapter only if the leaving organizes what follows. Describing it for its own sake would put the chapter anywhere, and biographies do not usually open on a thesis about what the subject ought to have done.A place left at nineteen and never revisited earns an opening chapter only if the leaving organizes what follows. Describing it for its own sake would put the chapter anywhere, and biographies do not usually open on a thesis about what the subject ought to have done.

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37. 37Text structure and purposeChallenge

    An article about a disputed border opens with a two-page description of a single farm whose fields lie on both sides of it.What is the most likely purpose of that opening?An article about a disputed border opens with a two-page description of a single farm whose fields lie on both sides of it. What is the most likely purpose of that opening?

    • ATo argue that the border should be moved to follow the farm.To argue that the border should be moved to follow the farm.
    • BTo show what the dispute costs at the scale where it is actually lived.To show what the dispute costs at the scale where it is actually lived.
    • CTo establish the author's familiarity with the region.To establish the author's familiarity with the region.
    • DTo suggest that the farm is the only property affected.To suggest that the farm is the only property affected.
    Show the answer and explanationHide the explanation

    Answer: To show what the dispute costs at the scale where it is actually lived.To show what the dispute costs at the scale where it is actually lived.

    A border argued over between governments is met, in the opening, as a fence through one person's fields. That is a change of scale rather than a proposal, and an opening of that length is not there to establish credentials.A border argued over between governments is met, in the opening, as a fence through one person's fields. That is a change of scale rather than a proposal, and an opening of that length is not there to establish credentials.

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38. 38Text structure and purposeChallenge

    A history of vaccination gives its penultimate chapter to a village that refused it, told without comment, and its final chapter to the disease's eradication.What does the penultimate chapter most likely do?A history of vaccination gives its penultimate chapter to a village that refused it, told without comment, and its final chapter to the disease's eradication. What does the penultimate chapter most likely do?

    • AIt argues that refusal was justified.It argues that refusal was justified.
    • BIt shows what the final chapter's success was achieved in spite of.It shows what the final chapter's success was achieved in spite of.
    • CIt concedes that the vaccine was ineffective.It concedes that the vaccine was ineffective.
    • DIt provides comic relief before a sombre conclusion.It provides comic relief before a sombre conclusion.
    Show the answer and explanationHide the explanation

    Answer: It shows what the final chapter's success was achieved in spite of.It shows what the final chapter's success was achieved in spite of.

    Placing refusal immediately before eradication makes the resistance part of the story of the success rather than a counter-argument to it. Told without comment is how a book presents evidence rather than a verdict.Placing refusal immediately before eradication makes the resistance part of the story of the success rather than a counter-argument to it. Told without comment is how a book presents evidence rather than a verdict.

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39. 39Text structure and purposeChallenge

    An article on machine translation quotes the same paragraph rendered by a system in 1997, 2010 and 2023, and prints them without comment before the analysis begins.What does that opening most likely do?An article on machine translation quotes the same paragraph rendered by a system in 1997, 2010 and 2023, and prints them without comment before the analysis begins. What does that opening most likely do?

    • AIt demonstrates that the 2023 system is flawless.It demonstrates that the 2023 system is flawless.
    • BIt lets the reader form a judgment the analysis will then have to answer to.It lets the reader form a judgment the analysis will then have to answer to.
    • CIt establishes the author's technical credentials.It establishes the author's technical credentials.
    • DIt argues that translation quality has not improved.It argues that translation quality has not improved.
    Show the answer and explanationHide the explanation

    Answer: It lets the reader form a judgment the analysis will then have to answer to.It lets the reader form a judgment the analysis will then have to answer to.

    Printing evidence before any commentary invites the reader to reach a view first, which the analysis must then meet rather than lead. Three versions across twenty-six years neither prove perfection nor deny improvement.Printing evidence before any commentary invites the reader to reach a view first, which the analysis must then meet rather than lead. Three versions across twenty-six years neither prove perfection nor deny improvement.

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